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Abstract
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The global protein supply chain is experiencing a profound transformation, driven by population growth, environmental crises, and rapid technological innovations. This review emphasizes a systems-thinking approach from the outset, framing plant-based, cultured, and insect-derived proteins as interconnected solutions within a broader food ecosystem. It critically examines recent advancements in plant-based, cultured, and insect-derived proteins, exploring their potential to address the dual challenges of global nutritional security and environmental sustainability. While plant-based proteins currently dominate the market, their dependence on ultra-processed ingredients and incomplete amino acid profiles highlights significant nutritional and functional limitations that warrant further investigation. Cultured meat, despite significant progress in scaffold engineering and the development of serum-free culture media, faces critical scalability challenges and uncertain long-term health implications that remain underexplored. Insect proteins, though nutritionally dense and environmentally efficient, face substantial barriers related to consumer acceptance, regulatory fragmentation, and cultural resistance. Emerging cross-disciplinary innovations-such as AI-driven protein design, precision fermentation, and circular bioeconomy frameworks-offer promising avenues for overcoming these limitations, yet their successful integration will depend on coordinated policy frameworks, consumer education, and robust regulatory systems. Ultimately, this review posits that embedding a systems-thinking perspective is essential for the future of alternative proteins, ensuring the simultaneous optimization of nutrition, ethics, and ecology. Without such an integrated approach, alternative proteins may continue to occupy niche markets rather than becoming mainstream solutions.
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